IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• Describe replication of DNA in eukaryotes.add a note on its inhibitor
• Describe transcription and post transcriptional modifications.add a note on its inhibitor
• Describe protein synthesis (translation) add a note on post translational modifications.
• Describe the lac operon model of gene expression.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• DNA repair mechanisms and disorders associated with them
• Features of genetic code
• Different types of mutations with suitable examples
• RDNA  technology
• PCR and its significance
• Regulation of gene expression
• RFLP & its significance
• Blotting techniques

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

• Okazaki fragments'
• Telomeres and their significance
• Reverse transcriptase and its significance
• Wobble base pairing
• Restriction endonucleases with examples
• point mutations with examples
• Inducers and repressors with examples
• start codon & stop codon
• Chaperons
• Cell cycle
• Significance of DNA polymerase and rna polymerase
• Spliceosome
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Hybridoma technology
• Dna sequencing
• Gene therapy
• DNA cloning & its applications

 NUCLEOTIDE CHEMISTRY & METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• De novo synthesis of purines and regulation
• Inhibitors of purine synthesis
• Salvage pathway
• Purine catabolism
• Disorders of purine catabolism

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

• Sources of carbon & nitrogen in purine ring
• Gout
• Allopurinol
• Hereditary orotic aciduria
• Lesch nyhan syndrome
• PRPP
• Uric acid formation
• Hyperuricemia

NUCLEIC ACID CHEMISTRY & METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• Structure of DNA
• Salient features of watson & crick model of dna

II SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Types of RNA
• Base pairing rule
• DNA polymerase
• tRNA
• Antimetabolites

ACID BASE BALANCE

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

• Mechanism Of Regulation Of pH
• Buffers of Body Fluids
• Renal Regulation of pH

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Role of bicarbonate buffer in maintaining the blood ph
• Respiratory regulation of ph
• Metabolic acidosis
• Metabolic alkalosis
• Respiratory acidosis
• Respiratory alkalosis

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Anion gap
• Renin angiotensin system
• Hypertonic contraction of ecf
• Alkali reserve

PROTEIN METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• What is urea? Write in detail the urea cycle and its energetics and the metabolic defects of urea cycle
• Name aromatic Amino Acids. Give an account of metabolism of tyrosine. What are biologically important compounds derived from tyrosine? What are the inborn errors associated with this amino acids?
• Name aromatic Amino Acids. Give an account of metabolism of tryptophan. What are biologically important compounds derived from tryptophan? What are the inborn errors associated with this amino acids?
• What are branched chain Amino Acids? Give an account of their metabolism and the inborn errors associated with these Amino acids
• What are sulphur containing Amino Acids. Give an account of the degradation of cysteine. What are the biologically important substances from cysteine and inborn errors associated with these amino acids.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• What is SAM and how it is formed and give examples of five biologically important transmethylation products.
• What is deamination? Describe different types of deamination with examples.
• Describe Meister’s cycle
•  Describe the synthesis of creatine.
• How NO is synthesized and its clinical applications?
• What are polyamines? How they are synthesized and their clinical significance?
• Describe transamination with examples
• What are one carbon units and describe their generation and utilization and their salvage pathway.
• Describe how the carbon skeleton of Amino Acids enter the citric acid cycle.
•  Specialised products derived from glycine,tyrosine,tryptophan,glutamic acid, histidine.
• Detoxification of ammonia.
• Biogenic amines
• Digestion and absorption of proteins.

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

•  Glucose alanine cycle
• N-acetyl glutamate
• Glutathione
• Taurine
• Homocysteine
• Glycine synthase
• PAPS
• Carnosine
• Carnitine.
• GABA
• Aspartate
• Albinism
• Pellagra
• H H H syndrome
• Cystinuria
• FIGLU
• Folate trap
• Serotonin
• Carcinoid tumors
• Melatonin
• Catecholamines
• L-Asparaginase
•  Maple syrup urine disease
• Anserine
• Betaine.
• Phenylketonuria
• Alkaptonuria
• Hartnup's Disease
• Active methionine with examples of transmethylation reactions

PROTEIN CHEMISTRY

I ESSAY QUESTIONS – 

• Classification of proteins giving example for each
• Structural organization of proteins with examples

 II SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS- 

• Classification of amino acids
• Secondary structure of proteins
• Biologically important peptides and their significance

III VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS- 

• Explain the difference between denaturation and coagulation
• Salting out
• Essential amino acids
• Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids with examples
• Importance of aspartate

MINERAL METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• Factors regulating blood calcium,add a note on hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia
• Absorption of iron and factors regulating iron absorption
• Iron deficiency anemia

II SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

•  Hormones regulating blood calcium level
• Mucosal block theory of iron absorption
• Copper functions, RDA and deficiency diseases
• Functions of zinc and deficiency manifestations
•  Hypo and hypernatremia
• Hypo and hyperkalemia

 III VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Fluorosis
• Selenium
• Tetany
•  Iodine – Goiter
•  Serum levels of sodium, Potassium and chloride 

IMMUNOLOGY

• Structure of immunoglobulin with diagram
• Major histocompatibility complex
• HLA typing and its uses

PLASMA PROTEINS

I ESSAY QUESTIONS – 

• Major transport proteins of plasma
• Functions of albumin,  causes and manifestations of hypoalbuminemia

II SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS –

• Albumin globulin ratio
• Transport proteins
•  Ceruloplasmin
• Haptoglobin
•  Transferrin
• Alpha  antitrypsin deficiency

CANCER

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS – 

• Oncogenes
• Oncosuppressor genes
• Tumor markers
• Alpha fetoprotein
•  Carcinoma embryonic antigen
• Etiological factors of cancer
• Oncogenic viruses
• Molecular basis of cancer
• P-53 

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES

•  Fluid mosaic model with suitable diagram
• Membrane proteins
• Transport mechanisms
• Passive transport
• Ion channels
• Active transport
• Endocytosis
• Receptor mediated endocytosis

FUNCTION TESTS

I Enumerate Liver function tests

• A:G ratio
• Vandenberg test
• Serum bilirubin significance
• Hyperchlorhydrias'
• Fractional test meal

 II Enumerate Renal function tests

• Renal clearance tests
• Glomerular filtration rate
• Inulin clearance test
• Creatinine clearance test
• Urea clearance test
• Creatinine coefficient
• Albumin creatinine ratio

III Enumerate Thyroid function tests

• Synthesis and secretion of thyroxine
• TSH stimulation test
• Hyperthyroidism
• Hypothyroidism

ENZYMES

I ESSAY QUESTIONS:

• Classify enzymes with suitable examples (or) What are enzymes? Describe their classification and nomenclature.
• Write an account of various factors affecting the enzyme activity with diagrams and in detail about the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme.
• Describe the mechanism of enzyme action and catalysis
• What are the different types of enzyme inhibition? Describe them with suitable examples.
• What are coenzymes? Name the coenzyme derived from B-complex vitamins. Describe their biochemical role.
• Discuss the different mechanism in regulating enzyme activity.
•  What are isoenzymes? Discuss the clinical significance of different isoenzyme variants of CK, LDH, ALP.
• Write an account of the important of serum enzyme in the diagnosis of diseases.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Competitive inhibition with example
• Isoenzymes with examples                                                                 
• Mechanism of enzyme action
• Enzyme specificity
• Allosteric  enzyme
• Role of metals in enzyme action
• Covalent modulation
• Diagnostic markers of myocardial infarction
• Therapeutic user of enzyme
• Allosteric regulation

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Active site
• Serum enzymes in myocardial infarction.
• Coenzymes
• Km value
• Michaelis Menten equation
• Feedback mechanism
• LDH
• Give two examples of plasma non-specific enzymes.

BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION

I ESSAY QUESTIONS

• Define biological oxidation. Mention the components and organization of election transport chain. Describe in detail the mechanism of ATP synthesis. Add a note on uncouplers.
• Describe in detail the components and reactions of electron transport chain. Add a note on its inhibitors.
• Describe in detail chemiosmotic theory. Add a note on uncouplers.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Schematically represent electron transport chain. Indicate the sites of ATP generation and inhibitors at these sites.
• Components of electron transport chain
• Name the proto-lipid complexes of respiratory chain, with their components.
• Chemiosmotic theory
• Coupling of oxidative phosphorylation. Uncouplers and their importance.
• Role of cytochromes in electron transport chain.
• Inhibitors and uncouplers of ETC

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Substrate level phosphorylation
• P:O ratio
• ‘Q’ cycle
• Ubiquinone
• Cytochromes

DETOXIFICATION

• Metabolic role of glucuronic acid
• Various detoxification mechanism
• Detoxification by conjugation, by oxidation, by hydrolysis
•  Role of glutathione in detoxification
• What are xenobiotics
• Hippuric acid

FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS

• Free radical scavenger mechanism
• Reactive oxygen species
• Antioxidants
• Superoxide dismutase

CHEMISTRY  OF CARBOHYDRATE

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

• Classification of carbohydrates with suitable examples
• Biologically important disaccharides
• Mucopolysaccharides
• Polysaccharides

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Mutarotation
• Epimers
• Enediols
• Inversion of sucrose
• Optical isomers
• Anomers
• Lactose and sucrose
• Starch and glycogen
• Glycoconjugate
• Mucopolysaccharides

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

• Amino sugars
• Glycosides
• Glycoproteins
• Heparin

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

• Which are the various oxidative pathways of Glucose?
• Explain glycolysis aerobic and anaerobic (EMP pathway) in detail. Also mention energetic and regulations involved in it.
• Explain TCA (Krebs cycle) in detail. Also mention energetic and regulations involved in it.
• Explain gluconeogenesis in detail. Also mention energetic and regulation involved in it.
• Explain HMP shunt (pentose phosphate) pathway in detail. Mention the tissues were this pathway is active and the significance of the pathway.
• Explain glycogenesis in detail. Also mention regulation involved in it.
• Describe how glucose is metabolized to pyruvate in metabolism to pyruvate in the body. Discuss the fate of pyruvate in erythrocytes.
• Define GNG. Discuss the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources and add a note on its regulation.
• Write in detail about glycogen metabolism and give an account of its regulation.
• Justify that citric acid cycle in the final common oxidative pathway for the oxidation of foodstuffs.
• Discuss the dynamics of blood glucose homeostasis. What is the role of hormones in regulating blood glucose.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUES

 Importance of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate regulation of glycolysis

• Explain the Rappaport-Luebering cycle and significance of 2,3 BPG                                          (or)Explain the supplementary cycle in glycolysis which takes place in erythrocytes.
• Importance of pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme and which are the cofactors required by it.
• Metabolic fate of pyruvate
• Metabolic fate of acetyl CoA
• Metabolic fate of OAA (oxaloacetate)
• What are the different precursors of gluconeogenesis?
• Importance of uronic acid pathway
• Diagrammatic representation of Cori's cycle and mention its importance.
• Key enzymes of glycolysis
• Substrate level phosphorylation
• Drug induced hemolytic anemia
• Lactose intolerance
• Metabolic fate of G-6-phosphate
• Role of c AMP in glycogen metabolism
• Glycogen storage disorders
• Essential pentosuria
• Why is TCA called as amphibolic pathway
• Digestion of carbohydrates.
• Significance of HMP shunt pathway
• TCA cycle / ‘Krebs cycle’
• Cori cycle
• Role/effect of hormones on blood glucose regulation
• Mucopolysaccharidoses
• Metabolism of fructose

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Essential pentosuria
• Galactosemia / Mention the enzyme defect in Galactosemia.
• Metabolism of alcohol
• What are anaplerotic reactions?
• Lactose intolerance
• Von-Gierke’s disease
• Aldolase B
• Polyol pathway
• PDH complex
• PFK
• Facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs)
• Essential fructosuria
• TPP in carbohydrate metabolism
• Lactic acidosis
• Glycogenin
• Amino sugars
• Oral GTT / GTT
• Glycosuria / Renal Glycosuria / Alimentary glycosuria

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

• What are antioxidant vitamins? Write an essay on sources, biochemical functions, RDA and deficiency manifestations of any one of them.
• Write a detailed essay on absorption, transport, biochemical role and deficiency manifestations of Vitamin B12. Add a note on metabolic link between B12 and folic acid.
• Name sulphur containing vitamins. Describe the sources, biochemical functions RDA and deficiency manifestations of any one of them.
• Describe in detail sources, RDA, biochemical functions of pyridoxal phosphate. Add a note on deficiency of vitamin B6.
• Describe in detail sources biochemical functions, RDA and deficiency manifestation of Riboflavin.
• Discuss in detail biochemical functions, dietary sources and deficiency manifestations of Vitamin C
• How are NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ synthesized from niacin. Write a detailed essay on metabolic role of Niacin coenzymes. Add a note on pellagra

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Scurvy
• Biochemical role of TPP
• Beri beri
• Antioxidant role of vitamins
• Role of PLP in amino acid metabolism
•  Biochemical role of FMN and FAD
• Folate antagonists
• Folate trap
• Role of THF in one carbon metabolism
• Biochemical role of coenzyme A
• Role of intrinsic factor in absorption of vitamin B12
• Role of biotin in carbon dioxide fixation reactions
• Pernicious anemia in B12 deficiency
• Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome
• Biochemical functions of ascorbic acid
• Pantothenic acid
• Biotin
• Structure of Vitamin B12
• Biochemical functions of Vitamin B6
• Neurological manifestations of Vitamin B6
• Nicotinamide coenzymes
• What is the difference between NADH and NADPH

III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Why coenzyme A is considered the  molecule of metabolic integration
• Cause of neurological signs in Vitamin B12 deficiency
• Liver is a rich source of folate but is not advised pregnancy. Why?
• What is citrovorum factor?
• Deficiency manifestations of folic acid

FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

• Describe the sources, biochemical functions, and normal requirement and deficiency manifestations of Vitamin D.
• Describe sources, biochemical functions, and requirement and deficiency manifestations of vitamin A.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Sources and daily requirement of Vitamin A.
• Functions of vitamin A.
• Visual cycle
• Hypervitaminosis A.
• Pro-vitamins.
• Anti-vitamins.
• Functions of vitamin D.
• Activation of vitamin D.
• Vitamin D deficiency.
•  Renal rickets.
• Tocopherol.
•  Biological role of vitamin K
•  Anticoagulants'.
• Gamma carboxylation reaction.

NUTRITION

• Basal metabolic rate
• Specific dynamic action
• Biological value of protein
•  Protein efficiency ratio
•  Nitrogen balance
•  Dietary fibre
•  Essential amino acids
•  Essential fatty acids
•  Protein energy malnutrition – different types
•   Kwashiorkor
•  BMI and classification

CHEMISTRY OF LIPIDS

I ESSAY QUESTIONS

Classify phospholipids, explain in detail with examples, functions of phospholipids

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Essential fatty acids
• Functions of phospholipids
• Clinical importance of PUFA

  III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Trans-fatty acids
• Rancidity of fat
• Liposomes
• Surfactant
• Respiratory distress syndrome
•  Lecithin
• Sphingomyelin
• Saponification number
• Triacyl glycerol 

                                            LIPID METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

•  Explain in detail about β oxidation of fatty acids. Add a note on energetic and regulation.
• What is FAS (fatty acid synthase) complex? Explain Denovo synthesis of fatty acids in detail. Write a note on its regulation
• What are ketone bodies? Give examples. Give an account of Metabolism of ketone bodies (synthesis & degradation). What is ketosis – causes and salient features.
• Write in detail about the synthesis of cholesterol. What are the important products formed from cholesterol?
• What are lipoproteins? Write a detailed essay on how lipids are transported in the body? Discuss about clinical importance of LDL and HDL.

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

• What are Eicosanoids? Write about synthesis and clinical importance.
• Classification of lipoproteins and write about electrophoretic separation pattern
• Hyperlipoproteinemia's
• Fatty Liver & lipoproteic factors

• VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 
•  Lecithin
•  Respiratory distress syndrome
• Cardiolipin
•  FAS complex
•   α oxidation
•  Refsum’s disease
• Carnitine
• Normal levels of blood cholesterol triglycerides, LDL, HDL
•  Reverse cholesterol transport
•  Lipid profile components
•   Bile salts and its functions.

 HEMOGLOBIN CHEMISTRY AND METABOLISM

I ESSAY QUESTIONS: 

•  Heme synthesis and its regulation with a note on porphyrias
•  Heme catabolism and note on types of jaundice

II. SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Structure of heme
• Oxygen dissociation curve
•  Sickle cell anemia
• Hemoglobinopathies
• Thalassemia
•  Porphyrias
• Jaundice and its types

  III. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS: 

• Vandenbergh reaction
• Bohr effect
• Chloride shift
•  Abnormal hemoglobins
• Criggler Najjar syndrome
• HbS/HbF

 CELL AND ECM

• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Lysosomes
•  Mitochondria
• Marker enzymes for subcellular organelle
• Peroxisomes
• Collagen – structure and disorders associated
• Prions
•  Composition of ECM
•  Diseases resulting from abnormal connective tissue proteins
• Marfan syndrome